An Islamic Approach to Peace and Non-violence: A Turkish Experience
by Zeki Saritoprak
John Carroll University Cleveland, Ohio
This paper aims to discuss the Islamic approach to peace and nonviolence through an examination of the Turkish experience. The first part explores the Qur’an and the hadith perspective on peace and nonviolence. The second part deals with Turkish Islamic figures who promoted peace and nonviolence through their teachings and activities, such as Suleyman Hilmi Tunahan (1888-1959), Mehmet Zahit Kotku (1897-1980) and especially Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (1876-1960), and Fethullah Gulen (1941- ).
Islam, as the word itself suggests, has connotations of peace and submission. Muhammad, in his description of Muslims, says, “A Muslim is one whose fellow brothers are safe from the harm of his tongue and hands.”2 The core values of Islam constitute the foundation of nonviolent action in the tradition.3 One of the main principles of nonviolence in Islam is stated in the well-known saying of the Prophet, “Lâ Dharar wa lâ Dhirâr” which can be translated as “not to harm and not to be harmed.”4 In his personal life, the Prophet was a living example of peace and nonviolence. Neither physical nor verbal violence was ever attributed to him. In his teaching, violence against all creatures is prohibited. Although he did defend himself when he and his followers were attacked, he made peace dominate as soon as it was possible, even at the risk of his own life. One example of this is the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, which had a great impact on the life of the Prophet in his relationship to idol worshipers. The Prophet accepted the hard conditions of his opponents for the sake of peace. Disarming himself to enter the city of Mecca, he placed himself and his followers at great risk so they could perform their pilgrimage peacefully.5 The Prophet’s action against the Meccans was a great example of nonviolent resistance to the oppression in Mecca by the elite. Although his message did not prohibit the use of force when needed, he never considered this an essential aspect of his message. The Qur’anic verse, “Peace is better,” constituted the foundation of his message (4:128). This verse primarily refers to family disputes, yet the terminology used suggests that peace is superior in all aspects of life. Therefore, whenever peace was possible, the Prophet encouraged action toward it. Even in the midst of war, “if the enemy inclines toward peace,” the Qur’an asks the Prophet to accept it and trust in God (8:61). Qur’anic verse also asks the Prophet and his followers to solve their disputes through making peace: “Be fearful of God and make peace among yourselves” (8:1). A similar Qur’anic verse says “if two groups of believers fight against one another, make peace among them” (49:9). The Prophet also dealt with the issues of tolerance and peace in relationships between individuals. In fact, the hadith collector al-Bukhari dedicated a whole book in his famous collection to the Prophet’s sayings on peacemaking.6
Peace and nonviolence go hand-in-hand. Nonviolence is an important step in the process of peace. The Qur’an describes the eternal abode of believers in the afterlife as dar al-salam. God invites people to the abode of peace (10:25). The greeting among the people of paradise is “Peace,” or salam (10:10). In the afterlife, when angels greet the people of paradise, they also will say “Peace be with you because of your patience in the life of the world” (13:24). The people of righteousness will be told, “Enter paradise peacefully and safely forever” (15:46). Peace is seen as an attribute of believers as well as an attribute of God: “They do not hear idol talk nor sinful speech; but only the greeting, “Peace, Peace,” or “salam salam” (56:26), in reference to the purity and harmony of eternal believers. In fact, peace “al-Salam” is one of the most beautiful names of God. To imitate God, Muslims are to be peaceful. In principle, Islam’s goal is to make this world a place where peace prevails, where all creatures are peacefully protected so as to bring humans closer to God and to reflect God’s name, al-Salam, throughout.
As briefly mentioned above, early Muslims were severely persecuted by the idol worshippers of Mecca, yet the Prophet for a long time did not permit his followers to retaliate or to use force, even for self defense, despite a constant pressure from some of his companions. Instead he asked them for patience against persecution, which eventually forced some of them to migrate from their beloved town of Mecca to Abyssinia, where they found peace and safety. The Prophet of Islam himself, with his closest friend, hid in a cave to escape from this violence against him and so he could migrate to the city of Medina, where he was invited to bring peace between conflicting tribes of Arabs and Jews. With the Prophet’s great courage and glorious position in society, early Muslims had the means to defend themselves against the idol worshippers of Mecca. Yet, the Prophet always preferred the way of nonviolence in response to their persecution. Although Muhammad is not included in the list of religious leaders who effectively practiced nonviolence throughout their lives (such as Buddha and Jesus), there is no question that he practiced nonviolence vis-à-vis the persecution he faced. This continued until aggressive defense against attackers was permitted in the Qur’an: “Permission is given unto those who fight because they have been oppressed . . . and those who have been driven from their homes unjustly only because they said, ‘Our Lord is Allah’ . . .” (22:39-40). For this permission of defense by temporary force against his attackers, Muhammad is known among other prophets as Sahib al-Qadib, the carrier of stick.7 One of the hadith narrations gives an example from the life of the Prophet: A Bedouin came to the Prophet and pulled his garment so violently that one could recognize the impression of the hem caused by the violence of his pull. The Bedouin, an Arabian from the desert, said, “Order for me something from Allah’s fortune which you have,” asking for some of the booty. The Prophet turned to him and smiled without any anger and then ordered that a gift be given to him.8
It should be noted that the Prophet was dealing with the problems of one of history’s wildest societies. Changing attitudes was the most difficult task for him. Historians have recorded that in the hardness of their hearts, members of the Prophet’s society had reached the point that they would bury their female children alive as a sign of tribal honor. The Qur’an severely criticizes such tribal traditions (81:8). The teachings he brought these very same people so drastically changed their hearts and minds that they came to show compassion not only toward all other humans, but also to God’s smallest creatures. The Prophet did not make this change through the use of force. It was his nonviolent and peaceful message that changed the mindset of his society.
Through the way of peace and nonviolence, he conveyed the revelation of the Qur’an to his people. As the Qur’an says, his duty is “to convey the message of God clearly” (5:92). Accordingly, he faced the persecution by the Meccans with patience, continuing to convey his message. He asked his community to acquire this attitude. The Prophet warned them against possible future violent actions called fitnah or trials within Islamic society that in fact happened in the form of a civil war that the Prophet had foreseen. A companion asked: “What should I do in the times of such great trials?” The Prophet suggested, “Keep to your house, and control your tongue.”9 In time of civil war, the majority of companions avoided the fitnah and social anarchy. In fact, this later became a principle of the Sunni tradition of Islam vis-à-vis social disorder and anarchy. Al-Ghazzali (d. 1111 CE) is known as an advocate of this principle.10 This Islamic principle is more in line with the principle of “avoidance of provocation” or “staying at home,” as articulated by some scholars of nonviolence studies.11
The Qur’an frequently refers to the struggles of biblical prophets, presenting them as examples of patience and steadfastness. The Qur’anic story of the two sons of Adam, Abel and Cain, is viewed by scholars as an example of nonviolence in Islam. The verse says, “Recite unto them with truth the story of the two sons of Adam, how they each offered a sacrifice. It was accepted from one of them, but not accepted from the other. The one whose sacrifice was not accepted said to his brother, ‘I will surely kill you.’ The other answered, ‘Allah accepts only from those who ward off evil. Even if you stretch out your hand against me to kill me, I will not stretch out my hand against you to kill you, lo! I fear Allah, the Lord of the Worlds’” (Qur’an 5:27, emphasis added).
Islam teaches that someone who initiates an evil will bear the burden of all evils committed after him or her. Therefore, Cain bears the burden of all murderers throughout history, since he was the first to commit this crime. The Islamic characteristics of a nonviolent person are found in the personality of Abel, who avoided retaliation.
Having elaborated on the Prophet’s adherence to nonviolence, the question of temporary aggression comes to mind. Did the Prophet ever use aggression against his enemies? There is no doubt that the Prophet used aggression when he and his followers were attacked and did not have any other way of stopping Meccan idol worshipers. The Qur’an states, “Evil shall be punished with the same amount of evil. But he who forgives and makes peace shall be rewarded by God. God surely does not love the wrongdoers” (Qur’an 42:40).
Although the Prophet defended against attackers, he also frequently practiced forgiveness. This mercy and forgiveness even extended to his enemies. It is reported in the hadith collection that at the battle of Ghatfan and Anmar, the courageous head of a tribe named Ghawras slyly approached the Prophet and, holding his sword over the Prophet’s head, asked, “Who will save you from me?” The Prophet replied, “Allah!” and prayed, “O Allah, suffice me against him.” In the same breath, Ghuras was knocked down by a mysterious blow he received between his shoulders, and his sword slipped out of his hand. The Prophet took the sword and asked him, “Now who will save you from me?” The Prophet forgave him and allowed him to return to his tribe. His people were surprised that such a courageous man could not do anything against the Prophet. They asked, “What happened to you, why couldn’t you do anything?” He told them what had happened and added, “I am now coming from the presence of the best of men.”12
Muslims are asked to struggle against injustice wherever it is found. Yet such a struggle should not cause a worse injustice. If this is the case, the Qur’an gives an alternative: patience and prayer. It states that if people are persecuted by oppressors and mocked, they have to be patient and they will receive a reward for their patience (23:107-111). The rewards of such people are based on the conditions of patience and steadfastness for, “God is with the patient,” has become an unsurpassable fortress for believers. Hence, one should respond and practice active resistance. Promoting resistance, the Prophet says, “The best of charity is a righteous word before an oppressor king,” yet such a resistance should be in a positive manner as the verse says, “Resist evil with kindness” (23:96). Many argue that the Qur’an presents methods of nonviolence through the stories of the biblical prophets, such as Moses. For instance, when God asked Moses and Aaron to convey His message to Pharaoh, the verse says, “Speak to him in a gentle language.” Such emphasis on the language to be used during the conversation with a tyrant like Pharaoh truly provides an example of the importance of nonviolence in the Qur’anic teaching. In the same story one can see nonviolent resistance in the confession of the sorcerers upon receiving a threat from Pharaoh. When the sorcerers said, “We have believed in the God of Moses and Aaron,” Pharaoh rebuked them and threatened them with crucifixion. Their response to such a threat is another example of nonviolent teaching: “We will not prefer you over what we have received from the signs of God who has created us. So, decree what you decree. You can terminate only our worldly life” (Qur’an 20:72).
In our contemporary world, nonviolence has become an important way to deal with problems. Many scholars have equated the term “nonviolence” with other terms rather than defining it. The following definition seems to present a general frame of the term: “it is a set of assumptions about morality, power and conflict that leads its proponents to reject the use of violence in efforts to attain social or political goals.”13 As a way for social struggle in recent centuries, nonviolence is associated with some widely known figures, such as Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) in Russia, Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) in India, Albert Luthuli (1898-1967) in South Africa and Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968), in the United States.
It should be noted that the Sufi masters and spiritual leaders mentioned above, although less well-known, provide great examples of peace and nonviolence in contemporary Turkey. Despite great pressure from ultra-secularists against these people, their adherence to the way of nonviolence has contributed to a more peaceful and safer environment in their home countries. The idea is that resisting violence with violence creates a vicious circle and increases the overall level of violence. As a Turkish proverb says, “You cannot extinguish fire with gas,” or as Tolstoy puts it, violent actions against evil merely add more fuel to the flames.14 Violent resistance is nothing but pouring gas on the fire. Although these personalities have been the focal point of scholarly attention in recent years, references to practitioners of nonviolence unfortunately do not include them in the list of those who effectively practiced it as a type of activism.15
Suleyman Hilmi Tunahan, the Naqshi master, is known for his piety and activities in the education of the Qur’an. Despite severe surveillance and oppression against his endeavors from the government of the time, one finds no record that this Sufi shaykh was violent in his actions. Instead, he continued to focus on teaching the Qur’an and asked his followers to do the same.
Similarly, Mehmet Zahit Kotku, another Naqshi Sufi Master, also had a great impact on social, political, and economic life in Turkey. Again, despite the fact that Sufi brotherhoods were officially prohibited, he managed to have his Sufi teaching and successfully avoided violence in his protest against this prohibition.
Two other great Islamic figures of contemporary Turkey, Said Nursi and Fethullah Gülen, did not belong to any Sufi order, yet have had great spiritual influence on the social fabric of the country. Few individuals of greatness are as little known to the Western world as Nursi, a lifelong champion of nonviolence. As this paper will show, he is one of the leading figures of peace and nonviolence in the Islamic tradition of our last century. Nursi, who is known as one of the renewers (mujaddid) of Islam,16 is among Islamic figures who promoted the theology of nonviolence in his struggle against his oppressors to avoid transgressions on the rights of innocents in society. Having fought in World War I and experienced first hand the horrific realities of the battlefield, and also having been wounded and spent two years as a prisoner of war in Siberia, Nursi was very conscious of the real destruction that war can and does cause.
Nursi’s understanding of nonviolence seems to be unique in the contemporary context of Islamic activism. Despite his contemporaries’ involvement in politically-oriented reactionary opposition to their own governments and to the West, Nursi preferred to avoid all this. He called his disciples “volunteer civil servants of safety” (asayis memurlari). He conceptualized his idea of nonviolent activism with the term “Musbet Hareket” or positive action. The term presents the essence and the major principle of nonviolence in Nursi’s teachings. For him, the notion of positive action goes deeper than simply refraining from violence. It is evident in his writings that Nursi cared for everyone in his heart, including those who persecuted him. Although he was poisoned by his oppressors over seventeen times, Nursi never attempted to respond in the same way; instead, he asked his disciples to avoid revenge.17 One can hear echoes of the Qur’anic verse in the conversation between the sons of Adam in Nursi’s request from his devout students when he says, “Dear brothers, if I am murdered by my opponents, for the sake of innocents and elders I ask you not to take my revenge. The torture of the grave and the fire of hell is enough for them.”18 From 1926 until the 1960’s, a time when all religious ideals were suppressed, Nursi and his followers were sporadically imprisoned. Despite all the persecution they faced, one cannot find any preaching of hatred in his writings.
Unlike many practitioners of nonviolence in our modern day, Nursi did not have a political goal. The only goal he had was for people to gain their eternal lives. He was convinced that victory is not through the use of force, but through convincing others about one’s own ideas. While saying that the physical sword should not be used, Nursi presents the Qur’anic truth as a shining diamond sword that negates the physical sword. The destruction that violence can bring caused Nursi to avoid all kinds of physical force. His well-known farewell letter to his students is considered an example of this. The letter opens with the following statement: “Dear Brothers, our duty is to do positive action and not negative action. It is to serve faith in accordance with what pleases God. We should not interfere with the duty of God. We must respond to all the difficulties we face during our service to faith with patience and thankfulness. Such a service will protect society from disorder.”19 Although the letter seems to contain elements of pacifism, those who know something of Nursi’s biography would not classify him as a pacifist - he was an advocate of positive action. He opposed those with the attitude of “I don’t care” or in Nursi’s own words, “nemelazim.” To him this attitude results only in dictatorship.
To overcome violence, he warned against the desire of power and possession. He equated politics with power and frequently said that he and his students had no intention of political involvement due to the dangers of the use of force. Nursi said that “We don’t have the stick of politics in our hands. We have two hands, by which we hold the light. If we had one-hundred hands, we will hold the light again.” Light implies, in Nursi’s teaching, peace, harmony, intelligence, and all that is positive. To him, no one should be against light since it benefits all. Of course Nursi was not against the politics of serving people, but he saw the dangers possible when power is based on personal interests. A major reason for his leaving politics was that he noticed how politics was capable of changing even a pious person for the worse. In his experience, he saw a pious individual in a certain party accuse a saint-like man of Satanism only because he was in the opposition party. Yet, this same person praised an individual who truly was evil simply because he was in his own party. After observing the dangers of partisanship, Nursi avoided politics and coined his famous statement, “I take refuge in God from Satan and politics.”20
By avoiding politics, Nursi used what scholars of nonviolence would call “withdrawal from the social system.” He believed that his activities and spiritual writings would help people realize the afterlife. He made a spiritual migration and chose to live an ascetic lifestyle. Nursi’s model of nonviolence, to the extent that he even avoided all kinds politics, is virtually unknown. Even Gandhi, a hero of nonviolence, later became the president of India. (peaceCENTER note: this is not so. Gandhi never held political office) Like his Muslim contemporary, Khan Abdulgaffar Khan (1890-1988),21 who struggled against the British occupation of India and promoted education as the most important means for Muslim advancement, Nursi held that in a civilized world there should be no place for violence. In one of his letters on relationships between Muslims and non-Muslims, he wrote, “Our action towards non-Muslims is based on convincing. That is because we know them as a civilized people. It is our duty to show them that Islam is lofty and beautiful.”22
Later Nursi developed this idea in the context of inter-religious cooperation; in particular, cooperation between Muslims and Christians. He formulated the philosophy of his teaching in the principle of “to love love and hate hatred.”23 To him, the biggest enemies of the word of God were ignorance, poverty and disunion. He believed that in the era of reason and knowledge, Muslims’ jihad should be through the bright proofs of the Qur’an and not through the use of force. To him, each verse of the Qur’an was much stronger than the sword used in battle. He believed in the power of the word. “The way to deal with civilized people is the way of convincing, not the way offeree which applied to those wild people who do not understand words.”24 Therefore, he described our time as the time of spiritual jihad, “struggle against spiritual destruction should not be physical, but spiritual.”21 Echoing Tolstoy’s famous statement, “Love and violence cannot be together. It presents an inner contradiction, such as cold fire or hot ice.”26 In Nursi’s teachings, love and hatred cannot be together in one’s heart. He says, “We sacrificed ourselves to love. There is no place in our hearts for hatred.” He believed that the two world wars taught human beings how hatred could be amazingly destructive. Therefore, “the era of hatred must end. Even the enmity of the enemy, if not attacking, should not attract our hatred.”27 Said Nursi drew his preference for nonviolence from the theological and ethical principles of Islam. One of the principles that he used as a foundation of his method is the following Qur’anic verse: “No soul shall bear another’s burden” (Qur’an 6:164). In other words, one cannot be blamed for the crimes of others. According to Nursi’s understanding, through violence and social turbulence, this principle is disregarded, particularly in our time. The verse clearly states that a person cannot be considered a criminal just because of his ethnicity, family background, nationality, or kinship to a criminal. Modern day struggles justify the killings of hundreds to punish one criminal. Hence, in Nursi’s understanding, a father cannot be punished because of his son’s crime and a wife cannot and should not be punished because of her husband’s criminal action. In the case of violence, the rights of the innocent are lost. Clearly, modern day terrorists ignore this major principle of the Qur’an.
For this very reason, Nursi dedicated his life to order in society. He says, “If I have a hundred souls, I will sacrifice all of them for the sake of the order in society in order to prevent the loss of the innocent’s rights.” Referring to the above-mentioned verse as the foundation of his thought, Nursi formulated his view in the following statement: “In order not to harm ninety-five people because of five criminals, and not to wrong the children and the families because of one criminal, the Treatise of Light (Nursi’s major work) provides service to prevent society from anarchy and bring order as it serves the faith of people.” Nursi observed that his writings affected people to the extent that their moral consciences would not allow them to contribute to the disorder of society and anarchy.28 For the importance of social order and solidarity within society, he gave an example from the stones of a dome: “Despite the fact that it is a stone in a dome, whenever it comes out from the hands of the builder it obeys by bowing its head to cooperate with its friends so both are protected from falling down. Unfortunately, humans have not understood the secret of cooperation in their society. At least they should learn a lesson from these stones.”29
In response to the government’s accusation of igniting disobedience in society, Said Nursi said that he served the social order of society better than a hundred chief police officers. Throughout his Risale-i Nur (The Treatise of Light), he developed five pillars of social harmony to shield society from social disorder and anarchy. These principles were compassion, respect, trust, to be conscious of what is lawful and unlawful, and obedience to the rule of law.30 According to Nursi, it would be impossible to assign a policeman to every member of society, yet through living these principles there would a spiritual police over the heart of each constituent of society.
In some of his letters to his students, Nursi used all possible alternatives to avoid violence and to not invite the violence of his opponents against him. For instance, Nursi used a method that scholars of nonviolence call “the method of silence.” In his communication with his students, he would mention many things and when it came to certain sensitive political issues, he would say “I am not allowed to speak of this. Silence now is necessary.”
Another method that he used was “the limitation of crime to a minor group.” Drawing his method upon the above-mentioned verse of “no one bears the burden of others,” Nursi would avoid generalization. He practiced this principle in his relationships with the ruling party, which found him to be a great threat to its very existence. He avoided accusing the whole body of his opponents; instead he laid blame on only 5% of the ruling party. He preferred the way of forgiveness, even against such torturers. In writing about the prosecutor who asked for the death penalty in his trial, he says, “I did not pray even against him.” According to his biographers, the reason he did not pray against the prosecutor was that Nursi was concerned about the man’s daughter, whom he knew. If a suffering afflicted the prosecutor, there would be no one to take care of this innocent child and show her the compassion of fatherhood.
He believed that the means to a just end have to be just as well. One cannot achieve a noble goal with an evil means. The way of nonviolence is the safest way to avoid evil means during this spiritual struggle. Nursi’s biographers also narrate a story from his early life in Eastern Anatolia. According to this account, a group of Kurdish tribal leaders visited him to get permission for their revolt against the newly established government of Ankara. Their goal was to bring Islamic law. Nursi reminded them that their revolt would cause worse injustice and anarchy. He asked them to give up their plan and eventually they obeyed Nursi.31 A peaceful society cannot be achieved through violent actions. Nursi’s teaching was cherished in Turkey in a time of anarchy and conflict, from 1960-80. His students and followers never became a part of the conflict during this time. Instead, they played a pivotal role in society’s reconciliation. Even when a wave of armed struggle was continuing between leftists and nationalists, which cost the lives of at least 10,000 people, Nursi’s followers remained peaceful and avoided involvement in anarchy. One of his students wrote a book to deter people from violence and to bring an end to the bloody struggle.32
At this juncture, it is appropriate to look to ahother influential Islamic scholar and thinker in Turkey, Fethullah Gülen. Gülen emerged as an influential public figure in the 1970’s, after his preaching and speeches became well-known among segments of Turkish society. Like Nursi, Fethullah Gülen also practiced the way of nonviolence in his activism. His personal experience and suffering played a vital role in his understanding of nonviolence. He himself witnessed the violent struggle between leftists and nationalists that caused the loss of the lives of thousands, most of whom were quite young. On the other side, he observed Kurdish guerilla fights against the Turkish government, which also cost the lives of 30,000 people in a span of 15 years. Accused of breaking the law, specifically, the 163rd article of the Turkish constitution which prohibited religious activities, Gülen also spent several months in prison in the 1970’s, although in the end, he was acquitted. Gülen dedicated his efforts to peace and nonviolence. In the time of his struggles, he always reminded his followers to avoid involvement in these conflicts, even if he was killed. Gülen says the following, “My admirers know that when anarchy was everywhere in our country, I have called to calmness and controlling of anger. I had received death threats, yet, I requested from my admirers to continue working for peace, ‘If I am assassinated, despite all your angers, I ask you to bury my body and seek for order, peace and love in our society. Regardless to what happens; we believers should be representatives of love and security.’ I continue saying the same today.”33
In order to work on various social problems and bring harmony to society, Gülen promoted cooperation with various segments of society, particularly with adherents of religions other than Islam as well as with secularists in Turkey. To promote cooperation and harmony among conflicting groups in Turkish society, he was one of the driving forces behind establishing a Turkish NGO named The Journalists and Writers Foundation (Gazeteciler ve Yazarlar Vakfi) (JWF). This organization successfully brought people of different backgrounds together for social reconciliation under the title “Abant Platform.” The JWF broadened its activities by organizing meetings outside of Turkey, such as one on the compatibility of Islam and democracy in the Washington, D.C. area held at Johns Hopkins University in April, 2004.
For the peaceful world of the future, Gülen encourages his admirers to establish educational institutions in and outside of Turkey. He gives special importance to the areas where ethnic and religious conflicts are escalating, such as Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, the Philippines, Banda Aceh, Northern Iraq, and Southeastern Turkey. The schools have played remarkable roles in decreasing levels of conflict in these areas. While visiting Macedonia in summer 2004, I had a chance to visit one of these schools, established by Turkish businessmen who are great admirers of Gülen. I was told that during the conflict between Albanians and Serbs, both sides would bring their children to the school as a haven of peace in order to deter their involvement in such a conflict.34 These schools serve children from all backgrounds, regardless of their religious and ethnic differences.
Gülen uses interfaith cooperation and dialogue to prevent future clashes and violence between the adherents of religions. He has become a symbol of interfaith cooperation in Turkey. He met with Pope John Paul II,35 as well as other religious leaders such as Patriarch Bartholomew I, spiritual leader of 300 million or so Orthodox Christians and the Chief Rabbi of Israel, to develop interfaith cooperation on various issues in order to bring peace to our world. Gülen believes that interfaith cooperation is imperative today. For some reason, Muslims neglected this tradition for a certain period of time; yet its roots are well grounded in core teaching of Islam. Referencing the Medina constitution, Gülen stresses that the Prophet himself practiced such cooperation. He regards interfaith cooperation as compulsory for Muslims to support peace and harmony.36 As a victim of religious persecution himself, Gülen strongly advocates freedom of religion for Muslims and non-Muslims alike. The norm of harmony that Gülen encouraged continued and was cherished until February 28, 1997, when a semi-military coup occurred. An immediate attack began against him and became a great obstacle to him in his teaching. Gülen, who suffers from a heart problem, was compelled to leave Turkey and relocate in the U.S. because of the situation in Turkey and also because he needed better health care. Some videocassettes intentionally compiled by his opponents accuse him of trying to take control of the state. Nevertheless, Gülen continues to practice the theology of dialogue, since he believes that his teachings are well grounded in the principles of Islam. He has written various articles on this subject. Interpreting the hadith that describes Muslims as those who do not harm their fellow brothers with their tongues and their hands, Giilen says the following:
True Muslims are people of safety and trust, so much so that other Muslims can turn their backs on them without doubt or suspicion. They can entrust a family member to such people without fear, for that person will be absolutely safe from the Muslims’ hand or tongue. If they attend a gathering together, the person can leave in full confidence that no one will gossip about him or her, and neither will he or she have to listen to gossip about others. Such Muslims are as sensitive to the dignity and honor of other people as they are to their own. They do not eat; they feed others. They do not live; they enable others to live. They will even sacrifice spiritual pleasure for others.’Referring to a poem by Yunus Emre (d. 1321 CE), the famous Turkish mystic, Gülen promotes total nonviolence towards others, saying, “We must be as if we are ‘handless’ to those who hit us, and ‘tongueless’ to those who curse us. If they try and break us fifty times, we are going to remain unbroken and embrace everyone with love and compassion. With love towards one another we will walk towards tomorrow.”38 The Kyrgyzstan Spirituality Foundation awarded him an honor for his contribution to world peace through his educational efforts in 2004.39
The victory for Gülen is the spiritual. He frequently refers to Nursi’s spiritual victory, the only real victory. He also gives an example from history, saying, “Tariq bin Ziyad, the Muslim conqueror of Spain, was victorious not because he defeated the army of the Spaniards, but because of his self-sacrificing when he stood before wealth and said, ‘Be careful Tariq! You were a slave yesterday; today you are a victorious commander; tomorrow you will be under the earth.’ “40 In Gülen’s teaching, spiritual strength was much more powerful than Tariq’s military victory. These are the things that make the theology of nonviolence essential in Gülen’s understanding. According to Gülen, love is an undefeated weapon, and love for others will bring sacrifice and service to others. Sacrificing oneself for the service of others is an essential part of his teaching. He says that heroes are those who do not live for themselves, but live for others. An attribute of peace in Gülen’s teaching is compassion and love — not only toward humans, but also toward animals. In a private interview I had with him, Gülen described an instance where his practice of peace and nonviolence extended to even an insect in his bathroom sink; he spent much time trying to rescue it because he knew that it was a creature of God and should not be left to die.41
Similarly, he has the same non-violent approach towards the natural world. He promotes a harmonious relationship between humans and nature, saying, “This miraculous art of nature shows something more subtle, something beyond its own beauty, something that points to the One who created it so beautifully, who wants to be felt through His art, yet not felt thoroughly because of His majesty.’”42
Today, whether we like it or not, many are proud of making the sharpest guns and biggest bombs to kill each other. In an era when Islam is equated with violence and barbarism, this Turkish experience of nonviolence within the teaching of Islam presents a viable solution. This way has been followed and practiced successfully by millions almost for a century. I hope this story of success will attract scholarly attention on a global scale.
Endnotes
1. The author wishes to thank Paul Lauritzen for his contribution by reading the first draft of this article.
2. Al-Bukhari, Book II (Belief), Hadith no. 10.
3. For terms such as adl (justice), ihsan (doing what is beautiful), rahmah (mercy), hikmah (wisdom) and their relationships with the Islamic concept of nonviolence, see Mohammed Abu-Nimer, Nonviolence and Peace Building in Islam, (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 37-47.
4. One can find a great similarity between this prophetic saying and Gandhi’s teaching of ahimsa, the Sanskrit term for “no harm” (see Thomas Merton, Gandhi on Nonviolence: a Selection From the Writings of Mahatma Gandhi, (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1964), 23. Also see William Robert Miller, Nonviolence a Christian Interpretation, (New York: Schocken Books, 1966), 23-32.
5. Al-Bukhari, Book XLIX (Sulh-Peacemaking), hadith no. 862.
6. See al-Bukhari, Book XLIX (Sulh, Peacemaking). This particular book contains a special section on the merit of making peace between conflicting parties.
7. See Said Nursi, Mebtubat (The Letters) (Istanbul: Sozler Yayinevi, 1994), 162.
8. Al-Bukhari, Book LIII (Khumus, One-Fifth of Booty to Allah), Hadith number: 377.
9. Abu Dawud, Sunan, hadith number: 4329.
10. See al-Ghazzali, al-Iqtisad fi al-I’tiqad, (eds.) Ibrahim Agah Cubukcu and Huseyin Atay (Ankara: Nur Matbaasi, 1962).
11. Gene Sharp, Exploring Nonviolent Alternatives. (Boston: Porter Sargent Publishers, 1970), 36-37.
12. See al-Bukhari, Book LII (jihad), hadith no. 158. Cf. Nursi, Risale-I Nur Kulliyati, vol. I, 426.
13. For various terms and definitions see William Robert Miller, Nonviolence, 23-32. For this particular definition see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonviolence. (Retrieved on 5.2.2005).
14. Cited in William Robert Miller, Nonviolence, 49.
15. See Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action, 3 volumes (Boston: Porter Sargent Publishers, 1973). Also see Manfred B. Steger and Nancy S. Lind (eds.), Violence and its Alternatives: An Interdisciplinary Reader. (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999), 293-351. With exception of some scholars such as Douglas Karin Crow “Islam, Peace, Nonviolence: a Select Bibliography.” Of these, only Nursi is included among advocates of nonviolence. See Nonviolence International, www.aviusa.com, retrieved 9/29/04.
16. Hamid Algar “The Centennial Renewer: Bediuzzaman Said Nursi and the Tradition of Tajdid” Journal of Islamic Studies, 12:3 (2001), 291-311.
17. See Necmeddin §ahiner, Bilinmeyen Taraflariyle Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (The Unknown Aspects of Nursi’s Life). (Istanbul: Yeni Asya Yayinlari, 1979), 341-2.
18. Nursi, Risal-i Nur Kulliyati, vol. I, (Istanbul: Nesil Yayinlari, 1996), 1060.
19. Ibid., vol. II, 1912.
o 20. Ibid., vol. II, 1797.
21. Khan Abdulgaffar Khan was a spiritual leader in Afganistan who opposed British occupation of India. As a devout Muslim, he believed that the only way for the advance of Muslims was the way of education. He founded an organization called Khudai Khidmatkar, or the Servants of God. The members of his organization would vow as follows: “I shall never use violence. I shall not retaliate or take revenge.” (see Manfred Steger, Ibid., 350).
22. Nursi, Risale-i Nur Kulliyati, vol. II, 1931.
23. Ibid., vol. II, 1930.
24. Ibid., vol. II, 1921, 1930.
25. Nursi, Risale-i Nur Kulliyati, II, 1914. 26. Leo Tolstoy, The Law of Love and the Law of Violence, tr. Mary Koutouzow Tolstoy. (New York: Rudolph Field, 1948). For the phrase see A Confession and Other Religious Writings, tr. Jane Cantish (Harmond Worth, U.K.: Penguin Books, 1987), 176.
27. B. S. Nursi, Mektubat, 418.
28. Said Nursi. Risale-i Nur Kulliyati. vol. II, 1910.
29. Ibid., 1981.
30. Nursi, Kastamonu Lahikasi (The Supplement of Kastamonu), (Istanbul: Sinan Matbaasi, 1958), 241.
31. See Necmeddin Sahiner, Bilinmeyen Taraflariyle, 254-5. 32. Mustafa Sungur, Anarsi: Sebep ve Careleri (Anarchy: Causes and Solutions), (Istanbul: Yeni Asya Yayinlari, 1979).
33. Hurriye, daily, 4.21.2004 (an interview given to Safa Kaplan).
34. For the effect of the Turkish school in the Southern Philippine island of Mindanao, and how this school worked as a haven of peace, see Thomas Michel “Fethullah Gülen as Educator” in M. Hakan Yavuz & John L. Esposito (eds.), Turkish Islam and the Secular State: The Gülen Movement, (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2003), 69-84.
35. See Thomas Michel, “Two Frontrunners for Peace: John Paul II and Fethullah Gülen.” Unpublished paper presented at The Front Runners of Peace Symposia, organized by Cosmicus Foundation, on March 16-18, 2004, in Amsterdam, Holland.
36. Fethullah Gülen, “Hosgoru Surecinin Tahlili.” (Analysis of the Process of Tolerance), www.herkul.org. retrieved on 05.02.2005. 37. http://en.fGülen.com/a.page/tolerance.and.dialogue/ fethullah.Giilens.writings.speeches.and.interviews.on.tolerance/al307.html (Retrieved on 5.4.2005).
38. Taken from Gülen’s speech addressed at the meeting of The Journalists and Writers Foundation, February 11, 1995.
39. Zafer Ozcan, “Kyrgyz Grants Gülen Contribution to Peace Award,” Zaman Daily, 03-11-2004.
40. Fethullah Gülen, “Victory of the Spirit,” Sizinti, July 1983, vol. 5, Issue 54, editorial.
41. January 25, 1996 in Istanbul.
42. Gülen, Fetullah. “Tahrib Edilen Tabiat” (“The Nature We Have Destroyed”). Cited in Abdul Fattah Sahin. Zamanin Altin Dilimi (The Golden Period of Time). (Izmir: Tov Yayinevi, 1991), 110-114. see also Zeki Saritoprak, “Fethullah Gülen,” Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature, ed. Bron Taylor, vol. I-II, (Bristol, New York: Continuum, 2005).
Source: “The Muslim World,”
Vol. 95 No 3 July 2005 pages 413-427